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Market Insight Globally, the Financial Cloud Market Growth is expected to have significant growth over the forecast period. The growth of the market can be attributed to the increasing digitalization across the globe and growing number of financial institutions that demand advanced IT solutions to gain genuine competitive advantage instead of only building and maintaining an expensive IT infrastructure. The financial cloud solutions enable enterprises to reach their existing as well as potential customers with right advertisement, in the right way, and at the right time, enabling enterprises to build a strong relationship with their customers. Due to these factors, the Financial Cloud Market Growth is expected to grow with significant rate in the upcoming years. However, high initial cost and lack of expertise, particularly among small and medium-sized enterprises (SMEs) in developing economies, are expected to hinder growth of the global Financial Cloud Market Growth. The study on the Financial Cloud Market Growth 2020 by Market Research Future has been conducted keeping the current proceeding within the financial cloud industry. COVID -19 Impact The report further considers the impact of the novel COVID-19 pandemic on the financial cloud market. It offers a clear review of the projected market fluctuations during the forecast period (2020-2027) at a pace of 22.7% CAGR while anticipating a valuation of USD 46.03 billion from USD 16.55 billion in the same period. Request a Free Sample @ https //www.marketresearchfuture.com/sample_request/7492 Operational efficiency is one more factor in driving the growth of the finance cloud market. A few years back, Roha Housing Finance wanted to issue loans within two hours instead of three days. After adopting cost-efficient cloud-based technology, it was able to offer end-to-end loan processing within seven days, which was 50% faster than the housing finance industry benchmark. Such instances probed the market for the financial cloud to rise at a substantial level and thus set the future to score toweringly with a host of opportunities. Further, MRFR finds that the financial industry is mostly prone to cyber threats due to the sensitivity of the data. It continues to develop in frequency, as the data generation volume grows. On this approach, Equifax incurred losses of about USD 1.35 billion from a devastating 2017 breach that affected more than half of the American customers as well as millions of the consumers in the United Kingdom. Here, the necessitate of adopting financial cloud came into action, which labelled to be highly successful. This instance also made the market of financial cloud more and more positive by the time, which resulted fruitful in the present time when the whole world is affected by COVID 19, and several industries went down. But the financial industry has less effect on it due to the firm base created for years. Segmental Analysis The global financial cloud market study has incorporated various segments that are component, cloud type, organization size, and sub-industry. Depending on the component segment, the market includes solutions and services. Among these, the solutions segment is further segmented into wealth management, customer management, security, financial forecasting and analytics, and others. The service segment has included professional and managed services. Depending on cloud type segment, the market has included public cloud and private cloud. Depending on organization size segment, the market has included large enterprises and small and medium-sized enterprises. Depending on the sub-industry segment, the market has included banking and financial services and insurance. Regional Framework The global market for global financial cloud is estimated to grow at a significant rate during the forecast period from 2018 to 2023. The geographical analysis of the market is studied for North America, Europe, Asia-Pacific, Middle East Africa, and South America. North America is presumed to have the largest market share in the global financial cloud market. The US, Canada, and Mexico are the leading countries in the region. The growth is attributed to the presence of large number of financial institutions and wealth management firms and a high degree of digitalization in the region. Asia-Pacific is anticipated to be the fastest growing region in the global financial cloud market over the forecast period. Rapidly increasing number of banking and insurance businesses and rising demand for advanced banking solutions in the region are the key driving factors for the growth of financial cloud market in the region. Key Players The prominent players in the financial cloud market are Google LLC (US), Microsoft Corporation (US), Oracle Corporation (US), IBM Corporation (US), Amazon Web Services, Inc. (US), SAP SE (Germany), Capgemini (France), Infosys (India), Fiserv, Inc. (US), FIS (US), and Temenos Headquarters SA (Switzerland). Browse Complete Report @ https //www.marketresearchfuture.com/reports/financial-cloud-market-7492 Table of Contents 1 Executive Summary 2 Scope of The Report 2.1 Market Definition 2.2 Scope of The Study 2.2.1 Research Objectives 2.2.2 Assumptions Limitations 2.3 Market Structure Continued… Similar Report B2B Telecommunication Market Information by Solution (Unified Communication and Collaboration), Deployment (Fixed, Mobile), Organization Size (Large, Enterprise), Application (Industrial, Commercial) and regions Trending #MRFR Report** https //ictmrfr.blogspot.com/2022/04/geofencing-market-companies-growth-with.html https //blogfreely.net/pranali004/telecom-expense-management-market-size-impressive-cagr-changing-business-scope https //postheaven.net/pranali004/financial-app-industry-impressive-cagr-changing-business-needs-scope-of https //market-research-future.tribe.so/post/openstack-service-market-research-impressive-cagr-changing-scope-of-current--6263de46791566c10c79891e https //www.scutify.com/articles/2022-04-24-infrastructure-as-a-service-industry-cagr-changing-business-scope-of-current-and-future-industry- About Market Research Future At Market Research Future (MRFR), we enable our customers to unravel the complexity of various industries through our Cooked Research Report (CRR), Half-Cooked Research Reports (HCRR), Raw Research Reports (3R), Continuous-Feed Research (CFR), and Market Research Consulting Services. Contact Market Research Future (Part of Wantstats Research and Media Private Limited) 99 Hudson Street, 5Th Floor New York, NY 10013 United States of America 1 628 258 0071 (US) 44 2035 002 764 (UK) Email sales@marketresearchfuture.com Website https //www.marketresearchfuture.com
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闇の御手（HAND OF DARKNESS) ハイブリット研究所を破壊せよ (Destroy the Hybrid Lab) ▼ミッション終了後、自動的に ◇ブルードマザーの通信【ライロス】［編集］ +... I have been contacted by another broodmother. Ryloth has been keeping her large brood out of the conflict. 別のブルードマザーから連絡が入っております。ライロス――彼女は自分が抱える大規模のブルードを紛争から逃していたようです。 She is impressed with you and wishes to bring her brood back into the Swarm. 彼女は陛下の存在に感銘を受け、己の群れをスウォームに戻したいと願っております。 Broodmother Ryloth, hear me. Take your brood to Jontur II. This is where the Dominion manufactures their newest ships. ブルードマザー・ライロス、聞きなさい。お前のブルードでジョンターⅡへ向かわせなさい。そこはドミニオンの最新型の船を製造している。 Destroy that world for the Swarm. 破壊し、スウォームのものにしなさい。 It shall be done, my queen. 必ずや成しましょう、我が女皇。 （未確認・未実装） Yes, my queen. This world belongs to the Swarm. ■■■ ▼リヴァイアサン内 ◇話しかけると【道具】［編集］ +... This place of metal and stone. Why? ココは鉄と岩だけ。何故だ？ You re not impressed? The primal zerg never built anything this impressive. 感動したりしないの？プライマルザーグではこの様なものを築けないでしょうに。 I do not need a wall, I will evolve armor. I do not need a weapon, I will evolve claws. 壁は不要だ、外皮を進化させる。武器も要らない、爪を進化させる。 The toolmakers might create something stronger than your armor and claws. 造り手はお前の外皮や爪以上に強い道具を作ることがあるわよ。 Their tools stay the same. I collect. I change. 奴らの道具、変わらない。俺は経験して、変化する。 ◇話しかけると（ランダムで発言）［編集］ +... There is a familiar presence coming from the labs. We must be prepared for anything. 研究所内に近しい存在を感じます。万全を期すべきです。 Your will guides us. 陛下のご意向に我らは従います。 Anything you wish. お望みのままに。 ◇話しかけると【不釣り合いな技術】［編集］ +... This place is very far out of the way, but it s guarded as if it were Korhal itself. こんな辺境にあるというのに、コーハルにしては厳重ね。 The terrans must greatly prize that which lies within. テラン共の素晴らしいお宝が眠っているに違いありません。 But technology at this scale... This is beyond Mengsk s engineers. けれどこの規模の技術は... メンスクの技術者たちでは到底及ばないものよ。 Perhaps they have help from something greater than themselves? ではあの者共は強大な何者かの手を借りていると？ If there are any answers, they are inside. どんな事実であるにしろ、その答えはあの中よ。 ◇選択すると【ハイブリッド】［編集］ +... Skygeirr Station. The Dominion s secret weapons lab. This is the heart of Mengsk s hybrid breeding program. スカイゲイルステーション。ドミニオン極秘の兵器研究所だ。ここはハイブリッド計画の中核を成している。 Tell me about the hybrid. そのハイブリッドについて話して。 Zerg and protoss DNA combined -- something that should not be possible. 不可能であるはずの――ザーグとプロトスのDNAを掛けあわせた存在だ。 And these creatures will follow Mengsk s orders? それでそいつらはメンスクの命令に従うの？ He believes they will. I am not so sure. 奴はそう信じている。私はそうは思わんがね。 ▼進化区画（Evolution Pit） ◇話しかけると（ランダムで発言）［編集］ +... Pain valuable feedback for organism. Organism with heightened pain receivers? Must experiment. 痛みは生物に有益な反応をもたらす。増幅した痛覚器官をもつ生物どうなる？実験しなくては。 Organism Stukov product of incredible workmanship. ストゥコフ、あれは素晴らしい出来栄えだ。 Many new evolutions inside lab. Many secrets. 研究所内は新しい要素に溢れている。多くの秘密が得られる。 Perfection. Deep in the core, in strands. 至高、螺旋構造の深淵にある。 Terrans with strong knowledge of essence manipulation? Implausible. テランが遺伝子操作の知識に長けているだと？信じられん。 ▼ブリーフィング The vanguard of your Swarm holds the entrance of the lab. スウォームの先兵が研究所入口で待機している。 The hybrid wait within. Let s send them to hell. ハイブリッドが待ち構えているだろう。奴らを地獄に送ってやろう。 ▼ミッション直前シーン Be quick, I have a battle to command. 指揮を取りに行くから、要点だけ言いなさい。 I must warn you about the being that runs this lab Dr. Narud. この施設を動かしているナルード博士、こいつには気をつけろ。 An ancient shapeshifter who has worn many faces over the years, he made me what I am. 長きに渡り幾多の顔を持ち、その姿を変える太古の存在、私をこんな形(なり)にしたのも奴だ。 So he s not a terran. Protoss? He can t be zerg, or I would know. なら奴はテランではないわね。プロトス？私の知る限り、ザーグとも思えないわ。 None of those. He is the servant of an ancient xel naga known as Amon. その何(いず)れでもない。エイモンというゼルナーガの信奉者だ。 I learned of Amon on Zerus. He s dead. エイモンの事ならゼラスで知ってるわ。奴はもう死んでる。 Well his creation lives on. Narud is the most dangerous being you ve ever met. And you will face him in there. なら奴が創りだしたモノの生き残りか。ナルードはかつて無いほどに危険な存在だ。行けば奴と対峙することになるだろう。 ▼ミッション We re inside. 侵入したわ。 Kerrigan, this lab houses the culmination of Narud s research the hybrid. ケリガン、この施設にはナルードの研究の集大成――ハイブリッドが収められている。 They are the ultimate weapon of the final war. こいつらは最終戦争に向けた究極の兵器だ。 The hybrid are waking up! ハイブリッドが目覚めたわ！ (苦痛の声) What s happening to you? 何をされている？ It s attacking me psionically! Draining me... サイオニック攻撃よ！私を吸収している... Stay strong! You must kill the hybrid or we are all doomed. 気を強く持て！こちらが殺られる前に、ハイブリッドを殺すのだ。 ▼操作開始 Eliminate that hybrid before its attack kills you! お前が殺される前にあのハイブリッドを抹殺せよ！ Bring it down! Now! 奴を殺しなさい！直ぐに！ ▼ハイブリッドを倒す（１体目） The hybrid is dead, but it will not be the last. ハイブリッドは死んだが、他にもいるはずだ。 You are not welcome here, Kerrigan. ケリガン、お前を招待した覚えはないのだがな。 Narud... ナルード... ▼ハイブリッドを倒す（２体目以降） One less hybrid. The Swarm now controls this section of the lab. １匹減らしたぞ。これでこの区画はスウォームが掌握した。 Another hybrid dead. もう１匹死んだな。 ▼位置アナウンス My queen, hybrid psionic signatures are appearing across the laboratory. 陛下、研究所の至る所でハイブリッドのサイオニック信号が現れました。 Another hybrid has been released! They must be destroyed. 新たなハイブリッドが放たれました！破壊しなければなりません。 Additional hybrid signatures detected. 新たなハイブリット信号を感知しました。 ▼ハイブリッド、吸収開始 A hybrid has begun attacking you psionically! ハイブリッドが陛下をサイオニック攻撃し始めました！ Warning. Another hybrid is attacking you. 警告します。新たなハイブリッドが陛下を攻撃しています。 ▼襲撃 A Dominion force is moving on the hive cluster. ドミニオン部隊がハイヴクラスターに接近中だ。 Fulfill your purpose. Kill everything. 役目を果たせ。皆殺しにするのだ。 ▼ブルタリスク：感知 The Dominion captured a brutalisk! If we get close enough I can control it. ドミニオンはブルタリスクを捕まえているわ！近づければ私がコントロールする。 ▼ブルタリスク：１匹解放 The brutalisk is mine. このブルタリスクは私のものよ。 ▼ブルタリスク：２匹解放 Both brutalisks have been claimed by the Swarm. ２匹ともスウォームの配下となりました。 Excellent. Now let s finish the hybrid. 文句ないわ。さぁハイブリッドを片づけるわよ。 ▼残り時間低下（残り２分半） You cannot last much longer. The hybrid must be destroyed. そう長くは耐えられないぞ。ハイブリッドを破壊するのだ。 ▼残り時間低下（残り１分） You must eliminate the hybrid! Time is short! ハイブリッドを殺せ！時間が無い！ ▼ナルード発言 You cannot fight the inevitable. そいつから逃れることはできんぞ。 ▼ナルード発言（セット１） The Swarm has served its purpose. It is a broken tool, fit only for the scrap heap. スウォームの意義は『隷属』だ。使えん駒は廃棄して然るべき。 Ignore his prattling. More of the lab has come under our control. 奴のお喋りは無視しろ。研究所は我らの手になりつつある。 ▼ナルード発言（セット２） Can you feel their hatred, Kerrigan? Coursing through your mind? ケリガン、彼らの強大な力を感じないか？全身を駆け巡っているだろう？ You surprise me. But you still have no hope. 足掻くがいい。どのみちお前に助かるすべはない。 When this is over, I m coming for you Narud. ナルード、ここを片付けたら会いに行くわ。 ▼ケース破壊 A hybrid is attacking you psionically. ハイブリッドが陛下にサイオニック攻撃を開始しました。 ▼位置アナウンス（最後） Detecting two hybrid signatures. They are in close proximity. ２体のハイブリッド信号を感知。２体は隣接しています。 Narud has awakened two hybrid at once! ナルードがハイブリッド２体を同時に目覚めさせました！ This is it, Kerrigan! Kill them and the lab is ours! 仕上げだケリガン！そいつらを殺せば、研究所は我々の物だ！ ▼ミッションクリア We have succeeded, my queen. There are no more hybrid signatures on this level. お見事です、陛下。この階層には新たなハイブリッドの信号はございません。 Have the Swarm flood into the lower levels. Kill everyone in our way. スウォームを下層になだれ込ませなさい。邪魔する奴は皆殺しよ。 Narud is up to something, and I intend to find out what. ナルードが何か企んでいる様だから、それを暴きに行きましょう。 +未確認・未実装 ◇未確認・未実装 Let them fight it first then. The Swarm will clean up whatever s left. ■■■ The hybrid is weakened! Kill it! ■■■ They can t possibly defeat a hybrid... Hopefully they can soften it up before they die. ■■■ The Tal darim. Willing servants of Narud s dark master. ■■■ The Dominion is attacking a hybrid tank! ■■■ The Dominion are fleeing -- and trying to break through our lines. ■■■ We should pull back and defend! ■■■ I tired of fighting on two fronts. Izsha, we re eliminating the Dominion s forces. ■■■ The Dominion are resuming their assault upon the hive cluster! ■■■ Yes, my queen. The majority of the Dominion s forces are located here. ■■■ Two more hybrid! ■■■ Only two hybrid remain. ■■■ Who dares interfere with the master s plans? ■■■ Not so fast, commander. I still have a use for you. ■■■ Now, kill the Queen of Blades. ■■■ The remaining Dominion forces are headed for the hive cluster! ■■■ My queen, the final hybrid is heading straight for our forces! ■■■ This ends now! Fight it head on! ■■■ The Dominion are deployed between our hive cluster and the hybrid. ■■■ Then they die also. ■■■ The vortex cannot be damaged. Any zerg caught within will be destroyed. ■■■ Keep away from the vortex! ■■■ Stukov, I sense... protoss? Yet, different somehow. ■■■ Our brood has wandered too close to the vortex. ■■■ Our lives for his! ■■■ Move quickly, the brutalisk is under attack! ■■■ No! They ve killed the brutalisk! ■■■ Another hybrid is attacking you! ■■■ A hybrid has begun merging with the vortex! ■■■ Stop it before it s too late! ■■■ The merge has been interrupted! Finish it while it s weak! ■■■ We ve interrupted the merging! Kill the hybrid! ■■■ The merging has stopped! Slay the hybrid, now! ■■■ Do not let that hybrid merge! ■■■ Stop that hybrid from merging, quickly! ■■■ We are being attacked from both sides. We should eliminate the Dominion s forces. ■■■ The majority of their army is located here. ■■■ A hybrid is attempting to merge with the vortex! ■■■ Another hybrid is beginning to merge! ■■■ The merge has been interrupted! Kill the hybrid! ■■■ The merge has stopped! Slay the hybrid quickly! ■■■ Our Ultralisks can be freed from Narud s machines. ■■■ A brutalisk! Upon your return, its mind can be controlled if you get close enough. ■■■ The brutalisk is under attack. ■■■ The Dominion has killed the brutalisk. ■■■ Our forces must keep away from the vortex. ■■■ Once free they will join with our troops. ■■■ I ll see what I can do. ■■■ Warning. The hybrid has warped to another part of the laboratory. ■■■ Don t let it escape! ■■■ A hybrid is attacking a containment cell! ■■■ You are a nuisance. But easily dealt with. ■■■ I can t take much more of this.... Kill them, kill the hybrid! ■■■ The hybrid s power is killing you! They must die! ■■■ You must destroy the hybrid before their power kills you. ■■■ Kerrigan is in danger. Eliminate the hybrid. ■■■ These hybrid are becoming annoying. Destroy them! ■■■ A hybrid is attacking you psionically. It must be eliminated if you are to survive. ■■■ Another hybrid has begun attacking you psionically. They must be eliminated for you to survive. ■■■ The last two hybrid are attacking you psionically! ■■■ The hybrid s too strong... I can t... ■■■ My queen, you should strengthen our combat forces before engaging the hybrid. ■■■ +条件メモ[Comment] ◇条件メモ（Comment） Mission Start 1st Hybrid Weakened 2 Reckless Dominion 2nd Hybrid dead Brutalisk 1 Dominated Dominion Attacking Hybrid 3 Activation Last two hybrid. Hybrid 3 Dead Hybrid 5 6 Activate Hybrid 5 6 Pings Activate 6 Hybrid Dead Dominion Assault 3 Area 5 reveal Hybrids 8 9 Activate 9 Hybrid Dead Hybrid 10 Protoss Discovered Brutalisk Zerg units enter the Vortex Right Before the second hybrid Wakes Up First location Second location Final warning Hybrid 2 Activation The camera shows the destroyed tubes of the hybrid. Explosions and fire bellows forth as Dominion flee. Brutalisk 2 Dominated The camera shows several explosions nearby before resting over the Hybrid 03 preview section. In case we still need them Hybrid 7 8 Pings Activate 1st Hybrid Dead First warning Upon seeing the first Ultralisks Comment Hybrid 4 Activation Hybrid 4 Dead Hybrid 7 8 Activate No hybrid active. Hybrid already active +条件メモ[Group] ◇条件メモ（Group） Hybrid02 Critical Path Hybrid 2 Hybrid 3 Hybrid 5 6 Area 4 Bonus Objectives Overwhelmed updates Loss Ending - OLD Context Sensitive Hybrid Activation Lines Brutalisk OBSOLETE Ending Hybrid stuff Area Dialogue Hybrid waking another hybrid Hybrid disappeared OBSOLETE BUT RECORDED Hybrid 1 Dominion Assault Hybrid 4 Context Sensitive Protoss Version Hybrid 7 8 【編集・コメント注意事項】 ・より良い翻訳を思いついた場合は、翻訳文を並べて記述してください。（既存の翻訳を削除しない）ですが、自信があれば上書きしても構いません。 ・併記された文章は折を見て管理人により１文に減少・修正され、全体の統一感を図ります。 ・間違いや足りない会話があった場合、編集をお願いいたします。もしくは内容の一部（会話の１文）などを、下部コメントにてご連絡下さい。 ・翻訳された文章のご指摘は、優しい文章でお願いいたします。 ・ご指摘の際は、対象の箇所が特定できる原文の一部を記載下さい。 ・コメント内で議論をしないで下さい。ご感想、ご指摘、ご意見などでお願い致します。 ・悪質なコメントなど、不適切と判断されたコメントは削除させていただきます。 ・[NEW!]翻訳された方はコメント欄に記録しておくと、後で見直した時に「ふふっ」となれます。（管理人もご協力に気が付けます） プレイヤー名 コメント すべてのコメントを見る Narud博士...スタクラ1やった人の中に喜ぶ人はいたかな？ -- (sky2461) 2015-09-06 16 01 16 完了したかな。未確認・未実装を残す。 -- (管理人) 2013-04-16 12 41 25 昼休みにちょいちょいっと翻訳。呼び出し関連に残り。 -- (管理人) 2013-04-09 12 41 28 作成。未翻訳 -- (管理人) 2013-04-08 23 01 57
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named (bind 9.8.2)設定ファイル（named.conf）作成 正引きゾーンファイル（tokaido.net.lan）作成 逆引きゾーンファイル（0.168.192.in-addr.arpa.db）作成 ルートDNS情報（named.ca）取得 ネットワーク関連ファイル変更hosts resolv.conf nsswitch.conf host.conf named (bind 9.8.2) fedora16でのnamed構築方法は以下の通り。 サーバ情報： ホスト名 comtrac FQDN comtrac.tokaido.net（例） local IP 192.168.0.200/24 global IP 無し 手順： 設定ファイル（/etc/named.conf）作成 正引きゾーンファイル（/var/named/tokaido.net.lan）作成 逆引きゾーンファイル(/var/named/0.168.192.in-addr.arpa.db)作成 ルートDNS情報取得（/var/named/named.ca） ネットワーク関連ファイルの変更 /etc/hosts /etc/resolv.conf /etc/nsswitch.conf /etc/host.conf 設定ファイル（named.conf）作成 テンプレート： // ----------------------------------------------------------------------- // /etc/named.conf // ----------------------------------------------------------------------- // // named.conf // // Provided by Red Hat bind package to configure the ISC BIND named(8) DNS // server as a caching only nameserver (as a localhost DNS resolver only). // // See /usr/share/doc/bind*/sample/ for example named configuration files. // options { listen-on port 53 { any; }; // listen-on-v6 port 53 { 1; }; directory "/var/named"; dump-file "/var/named/data/cache_dump.db"; statistics-file "/var/named/data/named_stats.txt"; memstatistics-file "/var/named/data/named_mem_stats.txt"; allow-query { any; }; recursion yes; dnssec-enable yes; dnssec-validation yes; dnssec-lookaside auto; /* Path to ISC DLV key */ bindkeys-file "/etc/named.iscdlv.key"; // allow-transfer{ // xxx.xxx.xxx.xxx; // }; forwarders{ 192.168.0.1; 8.8.8.8; }; }; logging { channel default_debug { file "data/named.run"; severity dynamic; }; category lame-servers { null; }; }; view "internal" { match-clients { localhost; localnets; }; recursion yes; zone "." IN { type hint; file "named.ca"; }; include "/etc/named.rfc1912.zones"; include "/etc/named.root.key"; zone "tokaido.net" { type master; file "tokaido.net.lan"; allow-update { none; }; }; zone "0.168.192.in-addr.arpa" { type master; file "0.168.192.in-addr.arpa.db"; allow-update { none; }; }; }; 正引きゾーンファイル（tokaido.net.lan）作成 テンプレート： $TTL 86400 @ IN SOA tokaido.net. root.tokaido.net.( 2007031400 ; serial 3600 ; refresh (1 hour) 900 ; retry (15 minutes) 604800 ; expire (1 week) 86400 ; negative (1 day) ) IN NS tokaido.net. IN MX 10 tokaido.net. IN A 192.168.0.200 gateway IN A 192.168.0.1 comtrac IN CNAME tokaido.net. tokyo IN A 192.168.0.140 yokohama IN A 192.168.0.141 nagoya IN A 192.168.0.142 kyoto IN A 192.168.0.143 osaka IN A 192.168.0.144 kobe IN A 192.168.0.145 portopia IN A 192.168.0.209 sannomiya IN A 192.168.0.210 mosaic IN A 192.168.0.211 レコードの説明： NSレコード ゾーンを管理するDNSサーバを指定 MXレコード メールの配信先を指定 CNAMEレコード 別名 Aレコード ホスト名に対応したIPアドレスを設定 逆引きゾーンファイル（0.168.192.in-addr.arpa.db）作成 テンプレート： $TTL 86400 @ IN SOA tokaido.net. tokaido.net.( 2007031400 ; serial 3600 ; refresh (1 hour) 900 ; retry (15 minutes) 604800 ; expire (1 week) 86400 ; negative (1 day) ) IN NS tokaido.net. 200 IN PTR tokaido.net. 1 IN PTR gateway.tokaido.net. 140 IN PTR tokyo.tokaido.net. 141 IN PTR yokohama.tokaido.net. 142 IN PTR nagoya.tokaido.net. 143 IN PTR kyoto.tokaido.net. 144 IN PTR osaka.tokaido.net. 145 IN PTR kobe.tokaido.net. 209 IN PTR portopia.tokaido.net. 210 IN PTR sannomiya.tokaido.net. 211 IN PTR mosaic.tokaido.net. レコードの説明： NSレコード ゾーンを管理するDNSサーバを指定 PTRレコード IPアドレスからホスト名を変換するためのレコード ルートDNS情報（named.ca）取得 $ wget ftp //ftp.nic.ad.jp/internet/rs.internic.net/domain/named.root $ sudo cp named.root /var/named/named.ca ネットワーク関連ファイル変更 hosts ループバックアドレス「127.0.0.1」以外を削除(コメント)する。また、「127.0.0.1」には以下のホスト名だけを定義する。 localhost.localdomain localhost $ view /etc/hosts # Do not remove the following line, or various programs # that require network functionality will fail. 127.0.0.1 localhost.localdomain localhost resolv.conf $ view /etc/resolv.conf search tokaido.net nameserver 192.168.0.200 nsswitch.conf $ view /etc/nsswitch.conf hosts files dns host.conf $ view /etc/host.conf order hosts,bind link http //kajuhome.com/bind.shtml
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Device Name Xiaomi 12S Ultra 小米 12S Ultra Model Name 2203121C (China) Code Name thor Color Black Dark Green SoC Qualcomm Snapdragon 8+ Gen1 SM8475 CPU 8-Core 3.19GHz TSMC 4nm TDP 10W 1x3.19 GHz Cortex-X2 3x2.75 GHz Cortex-A710 4x1.80 GHz Cortex-A510 GPU Adreno 730 @800MHz NPU Qualcomm Hexagon 780 RAM Samsung LPDDR5 3200MHz 8GB / 12GB Storage Samsung UFS 3.1 (3000MB/s) 256GB / 512GB Display 6.73" 20 9 1440x3200 522ppi Samsung E5 AMOLED LTPO Gen2 1000nits(HBM) 1500nits (Peak) Contrast 8,000,000 1 Adaptive Reflesh Rate Reflesh Rate 120Hz / Touch Sampling Rate 240Hz DCI-P3 100% / sRGB 100% / HDR10+ / Dolby Vision 10-bit Color Gorilla Glass Victus Always On Display Camera 50MP (Wide) F1.9 Octa-PDAF 1/1.02" 8P Lens HyperOIS / NightMode Sony IMX 989 8K @24fps / 4K @60fps / 1080p @1920fps 48MP (UltraWide) F2.2 1/2" Dual-PDAF 7P Lens MacroMode / NightMode Sony IMX 586 48MP (TelePhoto) F4.1, 50mm 1/2" PDAF 5x Optical Zoom NightMode 5x Optical Zoom 10x Hybrid Zoom 120x Digital Zoom Sony IMX 586 32MP Selfie F2.4 PDAF 1/3" 1080p@30fps / 720p @120fps Omnivision OV32B Battery 4860mAh Li-Pol Single-Cell USB 2.0 (Type-C 1.0) USB OTG Xiaomi Mi Turbo Charge USB Power Delivery 3.0 Qualcomm Quick Charge 4+ Wired 67W / Wireless 50W / Reverse Wireless 10W Xiaomi Surge P1 Chip (Charging) Xiaomi Surge G1 Chip (Battery) Audio Dual Stereo Speaker Tuned by Harman Kardon Dolby Atmos Compatible 24bit / 196KHz Network Modem Qualcomm Snapdragon X65 5G (Max 10Gbps) WLAN Wi-Fi a / b / g / n / ac / ax(6E) Wi-Fi Direct / Dual-Band / DLNA Bluetooth Bluetooth 5.2 A2DP / LE / aptX HD / aptX Adaptive / LHDC Band M2001J1C 2G - GSM 850 / 900 / 1800 / 1900 3G - HSDPA 800 / 850 / 900 / 1700(AWS) / 1900 / 2100 CDMA2000 4G - 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 7, 8, 12, 17, 18, 19, 26, 34, 38, 39, 40, 41, 42 5G - 1, 3, 5, 8, 28, 38, 40, 41, 77, 78, 79 NanoSIM x2 DSDV GNSS GPS(L1+L5) / GLONASS(L1) / BDS(B1I+B1c+B2a) / GALILEO(E1+E5a) / QZSS(L1+L5) / NavIC(L5) Seculity Under Display Optical FingerPrint 2D Face Weight 225g Proof IP68 Cooling 3D Vapor Chamber 3160mm² OS China - Android 13 (MIUI 14.0.12.0) Download https //mifirm.net/model/thor.ttt Other GSMArena https //m.gsmarena.com/xiaomi_12s_ultra-11614.php telektlist https //telektlist.com/smartphone_info/xiaomi-12s-ultra/ This datasheet was prepared by NISMON.
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Overview Find Happy Eggs Tame the Fatal Bugs Help Festival Decoration Happy Pet Vending Machine Overview Juno 市民はあらゆる動物実験を快く思わず、実験用だった全ての動物達をペットとして放出する事にした 訳注 ： 各街に２人ずついる Festival Guide と話すと、Happy Three Leaf Clover １個と引き換えに Juno へ転送してくれるただ、各クエストの必要 Base レベルは20だが Juno から出られるフィールドはレベル80前後の狩り場なので注意 Find Happy Eggs 必要条件 Base Lv 20 狩り対象 Happy Egg 10体 報酬 アイテム Clover Ticket ３個 このクエスト若しくはインスタンスは反復可能(*1) 1. Member of Happy Egg Festival (/navi yuno 175/162) と話して、Happy Egg を10体退治して欲しいという彼女の要請を受ける 2. 退治を完了して彼女の所へ戻ると、報酬として Clover Ticket を３個もらえる Tame the Fatal Bugs 必要条件 Base Lv 20 アイテム Something Fatal 狩り対象 Strange Egg(*2) 報酬 アイテム Clover Ticket ３個 このクエスト若しくはインスタンスは反復可能 1. Festival Guide (/navi yuno 142/55) と話して、Strange Egg から出て来るヤバい虫の捕獲 (つまりは退治) を引き受ける 2. アイテム D. Burger を使いヤバい虫を誘き寄せて10匹分 Something Fatal に変え、彼の所へ戻ると Clover Ticket を３個もらえる 彼に虫を30匹取り戻してやる(*3)と、お礼に Costume Egg Crispinette がもらえる Note D. Burger は Festival Guide に Something Fatal を10個引き渡すまで無くなる(*4)事は無い その後の進行を楽にしたいのであれば Something Fatal の在庫を更に増やしておくといいだろう Something Fatal はアイテム説明の中身と違ってキャラクター固定ではない Help Festival Decoration 必要条件 Base Lv 20 アイテム Happy Three Leaf Clover 10個 狩り対象 Clover Poporing Clover Lunatic 報酬 アイテム Clover Ticket ３個 このクエスト若しくはインスタンスは反復可能 1. Festival Deco Expert (/navi yuno 165/153) と話して Happy Three Leaf Clover を10個持って来る事を引き受ける 2. Clover Poporing や Clover Lunatic からブツを10個狩り集めて(*5)Festival Deco Expert に渡すと、報酬として Clover Ticket を３個もらえる Note Happy Three Leaf Clover はアイテム説明とは違ってキャラクター固定ではない Happy Pet Vending Machine 1. Happy Pet Vending Machine (/navi yuno 176/152) をクリックすると Clover Ticket １個につき Lovely Egg Box １個と交換される Box の中から出る物は下記の通り(*6) Small Doll Needle (Teddy Bear 捕獲用) Costume Green Clover Hat Chocolate Egg (HP 回復アイテム)(*7) Tasty Cookie Egg (SP 回復アイテム)(*8) Holy Egg Contract in Shadow - Deviruchi Deadly Noxious Herb - Poison Spore Delicious Shaved Ice - Marionette Dew Laden Moss - Spore Earthworm the Dude - Picky Fatty Chubby Earthworm - Peco Peco Girl Doll - Miyabi Doll Girl s Naivety - Incubus Her Heart - Bongun No Recipient - Munak Old Broom - Dokebi Orange Juice - Drops Rainbow Carrot - Lunatic Soft Apron - Alice Sweet Milk - Savage Bebe Sweet Potato - Smokie Tantan Noodle - Green Maiden Tropical Banana - Yoyo Very Red Juice - Loli Ruri Well-Dried Bone - Baby Desert Wolf Categories Repeatable Quests | Quest Window Quests
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Beverage Cans Market Analysis and Insights Quince Market Insights (QMI) has released a new research study titled "Beverage Cans Market” 2023-2032, provides an in-depth analysis of the market by highlighting information on several factors such as “Industry size, share, growth, segmentation, manufacturers and developments, key trends, market drivers, restraints, constraints, regulations, distribution methods, opportunities, strategies, potential road maps, threats and annual forecast until 2032" Click on Link and Get the PDF Sample Copy (Including FULL TOC, Graphs, and Tables) of this report@ https //www.quincemarketinsights.com/request-sample-69964?Offpagepranali_3April23 An Outline of The Competitive Landscape of The Market This section contains comprehensive data on a number of key Beverage Cans market competitors, as well as information on recent changes, market contributions, and effective marketing methods. The report also provides a dashboard summary of the historical and current performance of the top corporations. Beverage Cans Market Size is part of a competitive market. Beverage Cans have evolved into strategic platforms that provide businesses with a stable foundation and information backbone. As a document, the company included the like Crown Holdings Inc. (Philadelphia, US), Ardagh Group S.A, (Luxemburg), CPMC Holdings Limited (China), Toyo Seikan Group Holdings Ltd. (Tokyo, Japan), Can-One Berhad (Malaysia), Can-Pack S.A (Poland), Ball Corporation (Colorado, US), Envases Universales (Spain), Universal Can Corporation (Tokyo, Japan), Interpack Group Inc. (China), GZ Industries (Nigeria), Showa Denko K.K (Tokyo, Japan), Swan Industries (Thailand) Limited (Thailand), Nampak Bevcan Limited (South Africa), The Olayan Group (Saudi Arabia), and Techpack Solutions Pvt Limited (Seoul, South Korea). Key Take away Industry drivers, restraints, and opportunities covered in the study A neutral perspective on the market performance Recent industry trends and developments Competitive landscape strategies of key players Potential niche segments and regions exhibiting promising growth covered Historical, current, and projected market size, in terms of value In-depth analysis of the Beverage Cans Market Market Segments The chapters on Beverage Cans segmentation allow the readers to understand consumer needs. It allows the business to grow with precision and accuracy. Analysts have highlighted the elements that are expected to influence the segments in the coming years. The publication segments the market on the basis of technology, services, and products. It details the Beverage Cans revenue earned by each of these segments and their potential in the years to come. ✦ Segmentation ✦ By Material Type (Aluminium, Steel, and PET), Beverage Type (Alcoholic Beverages, Non-Alcoholic Beverages, and Water), Structure (2-Piece and 3-Piece) What are the key dynamic factors that are detailed in the report? Key Market Dynamics The Global Beverage Cans Market research report details the latest industry trends, growth patterns, and research methodologies. The factors that directly contribute to the growth of the market include the production strategies and methodologies, development platforms, and the product model itself, wherein a small change would result in further changes in the overall report. All of these factors are explained in detail in the research study. Market Outlook The report also sheds light on some of the major factors, including R D, new product launches, M A, agreements, partnerships, joint ventures, collaborations, and growth of the key industry participants, on a regional and global basis. Major Features The report provides a thorough analysis of some of the significant factors, which include cost, capacity, capacity utilization rate, production, revenue, production rate, consumption, import/export, supply/demand, gross, market share, CAGR, and gross margin. Besides, the report provides a comprehensive study of the key influencing factors and market inclinations, in addition to the relevant market segments and sub-segments. Analytical Tools The Global Beverage Cans Market report consists the precisely studied and evaluated information of the key players and their market scope using several analytical tools, including SWOT analysis, Porter’s five forces analysis, investment return analysis, and feasibility study. These tools have been used to efficiently study the growth of major industry participants. Potential Customers The report offers detailed insights to users, service providers, suppliers, manufacturers, stockholders, and individuals who are interested in evaluating and self-studying this market. A Synopsis of The Regional Landscape Of The Market This section of the report provides key insights regarding various regions and the key players operating in each region. Economic, social, environmental, technological, and political factors have been taken into consideration while assessing the growth of the particular region/country. The readers will also get their hands on the value and sales data of each region and country for the period 2023-2032. North America (United States, Canada and Mexico), Asia-Pacific (China, Japan, Korea, India, Southeast Asia and Australia), South America (Brazil, Argentina), Europe (Germany, France, United Kingdom, Russia and Italy), Middle East Africa (UAE, Egypt, Saudi Arabia, and South Africa) Report Scope This report aims to provide an extensive presentation of the global market with both qualitative and quantitative analysis, in order to help readers develop business/growth strategies, evaluate the competitive landscape, assess their position in the current market, and make well-informed decisions regarding Beverage Cans Market. The Data is accessible from 2023 to 2032, and the market size, forecasts, and estimates are given in terms of output/shipments (in units) and revenue (in USD millions/billion). This study segments the world market in extensive detail information on regional market sizes for items by type, application, and player are also provided. Market sizes were estimated while taking the effects of COVID-19 and the Russia-Ukraine War into consideration. The analysis includes profiles of the competitive environment, key players, and their specific market shares to provide a detailed understanding of the industry. Additionally, It contains a SWOT Analysis, a PESTEL Analysis, and a Porter’s FIVE Forces Analysis to assist you in understanding the Market, Competitive Landscape, and Factors That affect it, as well as forecasting the company’s future. Report Includes Following Questions What is the anticipated growth rate of the global Beverage Cans Market in the forecast period? Which regional segment is estimated to account for a massive share of the global Beverage Cans Market? What are the primary driving factors of the global Beverage Cans Market? What are the vital challenges faced by the prominent players in the global Beverage Cans Market? Which current trends are likely to offer promising growth prospects in the next few years? How is the competitive landscape of the global Beverage Cans Market at present? What are the key driving factors of the global Beverage Cans Market? Which latest trends are anticipated to offer potential growth prospected in the coming years? Make an Enquiry for purchasing this Beverage Cans Market Report @ https //www.quincemarketinsights.com/enquiry-before-buying/enquiry-before-buying-69964?Offpage/pranali_3April23 About Us QMI has the most comprehensive collection of market research products and services available on the web. We deliver reports from virtually all major publications and refresh our list regularly to provide you with immediate online access to the world’s most extensive and up-to-date archive of professional insights into global markets, companies, goods, and patterns. Contact us Quince Market Insights Phone APAC +91 706 672 4343 / US +1 208 405 2835 / UK +44 1444 39 0986 Email info@quincemarketinsights.com
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荒馬.netとは 荒馬.netをご覧頂きありがとうございます。 大川平って知っていますか？ おそらく同じ日本人でも知らない人達の方がずっと多いと思います。 それは青森の先っちょにある、小さな小さな集落の名前です。 より多くの人達に大川平荒馬踊りの素晴らしさと、 そしてその地で祭りと共に生きる人々の素敵さを知って頂きたくて、 この度新たにHPを開設する事となりました。 これからここに記されていく文字、写真、映像、その一つ一つが ほとんどの人達が知らないような小さな集落で起きた、 小さな小さな、でもとても素敵な物語です。 人を愛すること。 汗を流して生きること。 笑顔を絶やさないこと。 子供をみんなで育てること。 土地の美味しさを噛みしめて暮らすこと。 年寄りも若者も皆で力を合わせて生きていくこと。 そして、外から来た者達を受け入れる葛藤とそこに生まれるぬくもり。 たくさんのことが祭りの風景を通して見えてくると思います。 そして、その中にこそじつは、 この閉塞感の充満する時代を生き抜いていくための ヒントがたくさん隠されているような気さえします。 今の時代から忘れられたような小さな田舎の集落から、 今の時代に向けて大切なメッセージが祭り囃子と共に届けられる。 多くの人達にとって、そんな気持ちを受け取れるような場に このサイトがなっていけたら幸いです。 荒馬.net代表 黒坂周吾 ■荒馬.netメンバー紹介 代表 黒坂周吾（くろ） 京都を拠点に、国内・海外などで舞台活動を展開する 和太鼓・踊り・唄のパフォーミングアーツグループ 「BATI-HOLIC(バチ・ホリック)」代表。 http //www.bati-holic.jp/ 唄うたいとしても活動し、大川平との出会いから 「荒馬の里」を作詞作曲。 大川平(と出会ってから)10周年記念実行委員会代表を務める。 管理人 西嶋一泰（くりりん） 立命館大学大学院先端総合学術研究科大学院生。 専門は民俗学・文化人類学。研究テーマは民俗芸能の現代史。 大学のサークル和太鼓ドンに在籍時に大川平荒馬踊りにふれる。 以来、その魅力にとりつかれ、荒馬を調査・研究する。 http //d.hatena.ne.jp/souryukutsu/ Copyright(c) 荒馬.net 制作委員会 All rights reserved. 最終更新日 2010年06月20日
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Project Server 本体のインストールまでに必要な各種作業についてです。 IISの有効化 IIS を有効化する際、Windows Server 2003 のインストールCD(1枚目)が必要になるので、あらかじめ準備しておいてください。 まず、「管理ツール」→「サーバの役割管理」をクリックし、「サーバの構成ウィザード」画面を開きます。 「アプリケーション サーバー(IIS, ASP.NET)」にチェックを入れ、「次へ」を押します。 「ASP.NETの有効化」にチェックを入れ、「次へ」を押します。 そのまま「次へ」を押します。 「完了」を押し、ウィザードを完了します。 以上でIISが有効化されます。 ASP.NET v2.0 の登録 Windows Update/Microsoft Update のいずれかで、.NET Framework v2.0, .NET Framework 3.0 の両方をインストールします。通常は、これだけで ASP.NET v2.0 が正しくインストールされます。正常にインストールが完了すると、IISマネージャにて以下のように表示されます。 もしうまくインストールされていない場合は、以下のコマンドを実行してみてください。 C \Documents and Settings\Administrator C \WINDOWS\Microsoft.NET\Framework\v2.0.50727\aspnet_regiis.exe -i ASP.NET (2.0.50727) のインストールを開始します。 .......................... ASP.NET (2.0.50727) のインストールが完了しました。
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Logical positivism and logical empiricism, which together formed neopositivism, was a movement in Western philosophy that embraced verificationism, an approach that sought to legitimize philosophical discourse on a basis shared with the best examples of empirical sciences. In this theory of knowledge, only statements verifiable either logically or empirically would be cognitively meaningful. Seeking to convert philosophy to this new scientific philosophy was aimed to prevent confusion rooted in unclear language and unverifiable claims.[1] The Berlin Circle and the Vienna Circle propounded logical positivism starting in the late 1920s. Interpreting Ludwig Wittgenstein s philosophy of language, logical positivists identified a verifiability principle or criterion of cognitive meaningfulness. From Bertrand Russell s logicism they sought reduction of mathematics to logic as well as Russell s logical atomism, Ernst Mach s phenomenalism—whereby the mind knows only actual or potential sensory experience, which is the content of all sciences, whether physics or psychology—and Percy Bridgman s musings that others proclaimed as operationalism. Thereby, only the verifiable was scientific and cognitively meaningful, whereas the unverifiable was unscientific, cognitively meaningless "pseudostatements"—metaphysic, emotive, or such—not candidate to further review by philosophers, newly tasked to organize knowledge, not develop new knowledge. Logical positivism became famed for vigorous scientific antirealism to purge science of talk about nature s unobservable aspects—including causality, mechanism, and principles—although that goal has been exaggerated[who said this?]. Still, talk of such unobservables would be metaphorical—direct observations viewed in the abstract—or at worst metaphysical or emotional. Theoretical laws would be reduced to empirical laws, while theoretical terms would garner meaning from observational terms via correspondence rules. Mathematics of physics would reduce to symbolic logic via logicism, while rational reconstruction would convert ordinary language into standardized equivalents, all networked and united by a logical syntax. A scientific theory would be stated with its method of verification, whereby a logical calculus or empirical operation could verify its falsity or truth. In the late 1930s, logical positivists fled Germany and Austria for Britain and United States. By then, many had replaced Mach s phenomenalism with Neurath s physicalism, and Carnap had sought to replace verification with simply confirmation. With World War II s close in 1945, logical positivism became milder, logical empiricism, led largely by Carl Hempel, in America, who expounded the covering law model of scientific explanation. The logical positivist movement became a major underpinning of analytic philosophy,[2] and dominated Anglosphere philosophy, including philosophy of science, while influencing sciences, into the 1960s. Yet the movement failed to resolve its central problems,[3][4][5] and its doctrines were increasingly assaulted, most trenchantly by W V O Quine, Norwood Hanson, Karl Popper, Thomas Kuhn, and Carl Hempel. Contents [hide] 1 Roots 1.1 Language 1.2 Logicism 1.3 Empiricism 2 Origins 2.1 Vienna 2.2 Berlin 2.3 Rivals 2.4 Export 3 Principles 3.1 Analytic/synthetic gap 3.2 Observation/theory gap 3.3 Cognitive meaningfulness 3.3.1 Verification 3.3.2 Confirmation 3.3.3 Weak verification 4 Philosophy of science 4.1 Explanation 4.2 Unity of science 4.3 Theory reduction 5 Critics 5.1 Quine 5.2 Hanson 5.3 Popper 5.4 Kuhn 5.5 Putnam 6 Retrospect 7 Footnotes 8 See also 9 References 10 Further reading 11 External links Roots[edit] Language[edit] Tractatus Logico-Philosophicus, by the young Ludwig Wittgenstein, introduced the view of philosophy as "critique of language", offering the possibility of a theoretically principled distinction of intelligible versus nonsensical discourse. Tractatus adhered to a correspondence theory of truth (versus a coherence theory of truth). Wittgenstein s influence also shows in some versions of the verifiability principle.[6][7] In tractarian doctrine, truths of logic are tautologies, a view widely accepted by logical positivists who were also influenced by Wittgenstein s interpretation of probability although, according to Neurath, some logical positivists found Tractatus to contain much metaphysics.[8] Logicism[edit] Gottlob Frege began the program of reducing mathematics to logic, continued it with Bertrand Russell, but lost interest in this logicism, and Russell continued it with Alfred North Whitehead in their monumental Principia Mathematica, inspiring some of the more mathematical logical posivists, such as Hans Hahn and Rudolf Carnap.[9] (Carnap s early anti-metaphysical works employed Russell s theory of types.)[10] Carnap envisioned a universal language that could reconstruct mathematics and thereby encode physics.[9] Yet Kurt Gödel s incompleteness theorem showed this impossible except in trivial cases, and Alfred Tarski s undefinability theorem shattered all hopes of reducing mathematics to logic.[9] Thus, a universal language failed to stem from Carnap s 1934 work Logische Syntax der Sprache (Logical Syntax of Language).[9] Still, some logical positivists, including Carl Hempel, continued support of logicism.[9] Empiricism[edit] In Germany, Hegelian metaphysics was a dominant movement, and Hegelian successors such as F H Bradley explained reality by postulating metaphysical entities lacking empirical basis, drawing reaction in the form of positivism.[11] Starting in the late 19th century, there was "back to Kant" movement. Ernst Mach s positivism and phenomenalism were a major influence. Origins[edit] Vienna[edit] The Vienna Circle, gathering around University of Vienna and Café Central, was led principally by Moritz Schlick. Schlick had held a neo-Kantian position, but later converted, via Carnap s 1928 book Der logische Aufbau der Welt—that is, The Logical Structure of the World—which became Vienna Circle s "bible", Aufbau. A 1929 pamphlet written by Otto Neurath, Hans Hahn, and Rudolf Carnap summarized the Vienna Circle s positions. Another member of Vienna Circle to later prove very influential was Carl Hempel. A friendly but tenacious critic of the Circle was Karl Popper, whom Neurath nicknamed the "Official Opposition". Carnap and other Vienna Circle members, including Hahn and Neurath, saw need for a weaker criterion of meaningfulness than verifiability.[12] A radical "left" wing—led by Neurath and Carnap—began the program of "liberalization of empiricism", and they also emphasized fallibilism and pragmatics, which latter Carnap even suggested as empiricism s basis.[12] A conservative "right" wing—led by Schlick and Waismann—rejected both the liberalization of empiricism and the epistemological nonfoundationalism of a move from phenomenalism to physicalism.[12] As Neurath and somewhat Carnap posed science toward social reform, the split in Vienna Circle also reflected political views.[12] Berlin[edit] The Berlin Circle was led principally by Hans Reichenbach. Rivals[edit] Both Moritz Schlick and Rudolf Carnap had been influenced by and sought to define logical positivism versus the neo-Kantianism of Ernst Cassirer—the then leading figure of Marburg school, so called—and against Edmund Husserl s phenomenology. Logical positivists especially opposed Martin Heidegger s obscure metaphysics, the epitome of what logical positivism rejected. In the early 1930s, Carnap debated Heidegger over "metaphysical pseudosentences".[13] Despite its revolutionary aims, logical positivism was but one view among many vying within Europe, and logical positivists initially spoke their language.[13] Export[edit] As the movement s first emissary to the New World, Moritz Schlick visited Stanford University in 1929, yet otherwise remained in Vienna and was murdered at the University, reportedly by a deranged student, in 1936.[13] That year, a British attendee at some Vienna Circle meetings since 1933, A J Ayer saw his Language, Truth and Logic, written in English, import logical positivism to the Anglosphere. By then, Nazi political party s 1933 rise to power in Germany had triggered flight of intellectuals.[13] In exile in England, Otto Neurath died in 1945.[13] Rudolf Carnap, Hans Reichenbach, and Carl Hempel—Carnap s protégé who had studied in Berlin with Reichenbach—settled permanently in America.[13] Upon Germany s annexation of Austria in 1939, remaining logical positivists, many of whom were also Jewish, were targeted and continued flight. Logical positivism thus became dominant in the Anglosphere. Principles[edit] Analytic/synthetic gap[edit] Concerning reality, the necessary is a state true in all possible worlds—mere logical validity—whereas the contingent hinges on the way the particular world is. Concerning knowledge, the a priori is knowable before or without, whereas the a posteriori is knowable only after or through, relevant experience. Concerning statements, the analytic is true via terms arrangement and meanings, thus a tautology—true by logical necessity but uninformative about the world—whereas the synthetic adds reference to a state of facts, a contingency. In 1739, Hume cast a fork aggressively dividing "relations of ideas" from "matters of fact and real existence", such that all truths are of one type or the other.[14][15] By Hume s fork, truths by relations among ideas (abstract) all align on one side (analytic, necessary, a priori), whereas truths by states of actualities (concrete) always align on the other side (synthetic, contingent, a posteriori).[14] At any treatises containing neither, Hume orders, "Commit it then to the flames, for it can contain nothing but sophistry and illusion".[14] Thus awakened from "dogmatic slumber", Kant quested to answer Hume s challenge—but by explaining how metaphysics is possible. Eventually, in his 1781 work, Kant crossed the tines of Hume s fork to identify another range of truths by necessity—synthetic a priori, statements claiming states of facts but known true before experience—by arriving at transcendental idealism, attributing the mind a constructive role in phenomena by arranging sense data into the very experience space, time, and substance. Thus, Kant saved Newton s law of universal gravitation from Hume s problem of induction by finding uniformity of nature to be a priori knowledge. Logical positivists rejected Kant s synthethic a priori, and staked Hume s fork, whereby a statement is either analytic and a priori (thus necessary and verifiable logically) or synthetic and a posteriori (thus contingent and verifiable empirically).[14] Observation/theory gap[edit] Early, most logical positivists proposed that all knowledge is based on logical inference from simple "protocol sentences" grounded in observable facts. In the 1936 and 1937 papers "Testability and meaning", individual terms replace sentences as the units of meaning.[12] Further, theoretical terms no longer need to acquire meaning by explicit definition from observational terms the connection may be indirect, through a system of implicit definitions.[12] (Carnap also provides an important, pioneering discussion of disposition predicates.)[12] Cognitive meaningfulness[edit] Verification[edit] The logical positivists initial stance was that a statement is "cognitively meaningful" only if some finite procedure conclusively determines its truth.[16] By this verifiability principle, only statements verifiable either by their analyticity or by empiricism were cognitively meaningful. Metaphysics, ontology, as well as much of ethics failed this criterion, and so were found cognitively meaningless. Moritz Schlick, however, did not view ethical or aesthetic statements as cognitively meaningless.[17] Cognitive meaningfulness was variously defined having a truth value; corresponding to a possible state of affairs; naming a proposition; intelligible or understandable as are scientific statements.[18] Ethics and aesthetics were subjective preferences, while theology and other metaphysics contained "pseudostatements", neither true nor false. This meaningfulness was cognitive, although other types of meaningfulness—for instance, emotive, expressive, or figurative—occurred in metaphysical discourse, dismissed from further review. Thus, logical positivism indirectly asserted Hume s law, the principle that is statements cannot justify ought statements, but are separated by an unbridgeable gap. A J Ayer s 1936 book asserted an extreme variant—the boo/hooray doctrine—whereby all evaluative judgments are but emotional reactions. Confirmation[edit] In an important pair of papers in 1936 and 1937, "Testability and meaning", Carnap replaced verification with confirmation, on the view that although universal laws cannot be verified they can be confirmed.[12] Later, Carnap employed abundant logical and mathematical methods in researching inductive logic while seeking to provide and account of probability as "degree of confirmation", but was never able to formulate a model.[19] In Carnap s inductive logic, every universal law s degree of confirmation is always zero.[19] In any event, the precise formulation of what came to be called the "criterion of cognitive significance" took three decades (Hempel 1950, Carnap 1956, Carnap 1961).[12] Carl Hempel became a major critic within the logical positivism movement.[20] Hempel elucidated the paradox of confirmation. Weak verification[edit] The second edition of A J Ayer s book arrived in 1946, and discerned strong versus weak forms of verification. Ayer concluded, "A proposition is said to be verifiable, in the strong sense of the term, if, and only if, its truth could be conclusively established by experience", but is verifiable in the weak sense "if it is possible for experience to render it probable".[21] And yet, "no proposition, other than a tautology, can possibly be anything more than a probable hypothesis".[21] Thus, all are open to weak verification. Philosophy of science[edit] Upon the global defeat of Nazism, and removed from philosophy rivials for radical reform—Marburg neo-Kantianism, Husserlian phenomenology, Heidegger s "existential hermeneutics"—while hosted in the climate of American pragmatism and commonsense empiricism, the neopositivists shed much of their earlier, revolutionary zeal.[1] No longer crusading to revise traditional philosophy into a new scientific philosophy, they became respectable members of a new philosophy subdiscipline, philosophy of science.[1] Receiving support from Ernest Nagel, logical empiricists were especially influential in the social sciences.[22] Explanation[edit] Comtean positivism had viewed science as description, whereas the logical positivists posed science as explanation, perhaps to better realize the envisioned unity of science by covering not only fundamental science—that is, fundamental physics—but the special sciences, too, for instance biology, anthropology, psychology, sociology, and economics.[23] The most widely accepted concept of scientific explanation, held even by neopositivist critic Karl Popper, was the deductive-nomological model (DN model).[24] Yet DN model received its greatest explication by Carl Hempel, first in his 1942 article "The function of general laws in history", and more explicitly with Paul Oppenheim in their 1948 article "Studies in the logic of explanation".[24] In DN model, the stated phenomenon to be explained is the explanandum—which can be an event, law, or theory—whereas premises stated to explain it are the explanans.[25] Explanans must be true or highly confirmed, contain at least one law, and entail the explanandum.[25] Thus, given initial conditions C1, C2 . . . Cn plus general laws L1, L2 . . . Ln, event E is a deductive consequence and scientifically explained.[25] In DN model, a law is an unrestricted generalization by conditional proposition—If A, then B—and has empirical content testable.[26] (Differing from a merely true regularity—for instance, George always carries only $1 bills in his wallet—a law suggests what must be true,[27] and is consequent of a scientific theory s axiomatic structure.[28]) By the Humean empiricist view that humans observe sequence of events, not cause and effect—as causality and causal mechanisms are unobservable—DN model neglects causality beyond mere constant conjunction, first event A and then always event B.[23] Hempel s explication of DN model held natural laws—empirically confirmed regularities—as satisfactory and, if formulated realistically, approximating causal explanation.[25] In later articles, Hempel defended DN model and proposed a probabilistic explanation, inductive-statistical model (IS model).[25] DN model and IS model together form covering law model,[25] as named by a critic, William Dray.[29] (Derivation of statistical laws from other statistical laws goes to deductive-statistical model (DS model).)[30] Georg Hendrik von Wright, another critic, named it subsumption theory,[31] fitting the ambition of theory reduction. Unity of science[edit] Logical positivists were generally committed to "Unified Science", and sought a common language or, in Neurath s phrase, a "universal slang" whereby which all scientific propositions could be expressed.[32] The adequacy of proposals or fragments of proposals for such a language was often asserted on the basis of various "reductions" or "explications" of the terms of one special science to the terms of another, putatively more fundamental. Sometimes these reductions consisted of set-theoretic manipulations of a few logically primitive concepts (as in Carnap s Logical Structure of the World (1928)). Sometimes, these reductions consisted of allegedly analytic or a priori deductive relationships (as in Carnap s "Testability and meaning"). A number of publications over a period of thirty years would attempt to elucidate this concept. Theory reduction[edit] As in Comptean positivism s envisioned unity of science, neopositivists aimed to network all special sciences through the covering law model of scientific explanation. And ultimately, by supplying boundary conditions and supplying bridge laws within the covering law model, all the special sciences laws would reduce to fundamental physics, the fundamental science. Critics[edit] After the Second World War s close in 1945, key tenets of logical positivism, including its atomistic philosophy of science, the verifiability principle, and the fact/value gap, drew escalated criticism. It was clear that empirical claims cannot be verified to be universally true.[12] Thus, as initially stated, the verifiability criterion made universal statements meaningless, and even made statements beyond empiricism for technological but not conceptual reasons meaningless, which would pose significant problems for science.[20][33][34] These problems were recognized within the movement, which hosted attempted solutions—Carnap s move to confirmation, Ayer s acceptance of weak verification—but the program drew sustained criticism from a number of directions by the 1950s. Even philosophers disagreeing among themselves on which direction general epistemology ought to take, as well as on philosophy of science, agreed that the logical empiricist program was untenable, and it became viewed as selfcontradictory.[35] The verifiability criterion of meaning was itself unverified.[35] Notable critics were Nelson Goodman, Willard Van Orman Quine, Norwood Hanson, Karl Popper, Thomas Kuhn, J L Austin, Peter Strawson, Hilary Putnam, Ludwig von Mises, and Richard Rorty. Quine[edit] Although quite empiricist, American logician Willard Van Orman Quine published the 1951 paper "Two dogmas of empiricism",[36] which challenged conventional empiricist presumptions. Quine attacked the analytic/synthetic division, which the verificationist program had been hinged upon in order to entail, by consequence of Hume s fork, both necessity and apriocity. Quine s ontological relativity explained that every term in any statement has its meaning contingent on a vast network of knowledge and belief, the speaker s conception of the entire world. Quine later proposed naturalized epistemology. Hanson[edit] In 1958, Norwood Hanson s Patterns of Discovery undermined the division of observation versus theory,[37] as one can predict, collect, prioritize, and assess data only via some horizon of expectation set by a theory. Thus, any dataset—the direct observations, the scientific facts—is laden with theory. Popper[edit] An early, tenacious critic was Karl Popper whose 1934 book Logik der Forschung, arriving in English in 1959 as The Logic of Scientific Discovery, directly answered verificationism. Popper heeded the problem of induction as rendering empirical verification logically impossible.[38] And the deductive fallacy of affirming the consequent reveals any phenomenon s capacity to host over one logically possible explanation. Accepting scientific method as hypotheticodeduction, whose inference form is denying the consequent, Popper finds scientific method unable to proceed without falsifiable predictions. Popper thus identifies falsifiability to demarcate not meaningful from meaningless but simply scientific from unscientific—a label not in itself unfavorable. Popper finds virtue in metaphysics, required to develop new scientific theories. And an unfalsifiable—thus unscientific, perhaps metaphysical—concept in one era can later, through evolving knowledge or technology, become falsifiable, thus scientific. Popper also found science s quest for truth to rest on values. Popper disparages the pseudoscientific, which occurs when an unscientific theory is proclaimed true and coupled with seemingly scientific method by "testing" the unfalsifiable theory—whose predictions are confirmed by necessity—or when a scientific theory s falsifiable predictions are strongly falsified but the theory is persistently protected by "immunizing stratagems", such as the appendage of ad hoc clauses saving the theory or the recourse to increasingly speculative hypotheses shielding the theory. Popper s scientific epistemology is falsificationism, which finds that no number, degree, and variety of empirical successes can either verify or confirm scientific theory. Falsificationism finds science s aim as corroboration of scientific theory, which strives for scientific realism but accepts the maximal status of strongly corroborated verisimilitude ("truthlikeness"). Explicitly denying the positivist view that all knowledge is scientific, Popper developed the general epistemology critical rationalism, which finds human knowledge to evolve by conjectures and refutations. Popper thus acknowledged the value of the positivist movement, driving evolution of human understanding, but claimed that he had "killed positivism". Kuhn[edit] With his landmark, The Structure of Scientific Revolutions, Thomas Kuhn critically destabilized the verificationist program, which was presumed to call for foundationalism. (Actually, even in the 1930s, Otto Neurath had argued for nonfoundationalism via coherentism by likening science to a boat that scientists must rebuild at sea[citation needed].) Although Kuhn s thesis itself was attacked even by opponents of neopositivism, in the 1970 postscript to Structure, Kuhn asserted, at least, that there was no algorithm to science—and, on that, even most of Kuhn s critics agreed. Powerful and persuasive, Kuhn s book, unlike the vocabulary and symbols of logic s formal language, was written in natural language open to the laypersons.[39] Ironically, Kuhn s book was first published in a volume of Encyclopedia of Unified Science—a project begun by logical positivists—and some sense unified science, indeed, but by bringing it into the realm of historical and social assessment, rather than fitting it to the model of physics.[39] Kuhn s ideas were rapidly adopted by scholars in disciplines well outside natural sciences,[39] and, as logical empiricists were extremely influential in the social sciences,[22] ushered academia into postpositivism or postempiricism.[39] Putnam[edit] The "received view" operates on the correspondence rule that states, "The observational terms are taken as referring to specified phenomena or phenomenal properties, and the only interpretation given to the theoretical terms is their explicit definition provided by the correspondence rules".[11] According to Hilary Putnam, a former student of Reichenbach and of Carnap, the dichotomy of observational terms versus theoretical terms introduced a problem within scientific discussion that was nonexistent until this dichotomy was stated by logical positivists.[40] Putnam s four objections Something is referred to as "observational" if it is observable directly with our senses. Then an observation term cannot be applied to something unobservable. If this is the case, there are no observation terms. With Carnap s classification, some unobservable terms are not even theoretical and belong to neither observation terms nor theoretical terms. Some theoretical terms refer primarily to observation terms. Reports of observation terms frequently contain theoretical terms. A scientific theory may not contain any theoretical terms (an example of this is Darwin s original theory of evolution). Putman also alleged that positivism was actually a form of metaphysical idealism by its rejecting scientific theory s ability to garner knowledge about nature s unobservable aspects. With his "no miracles" argument, posed in 1974, Putnam asserted scientific realism, the stance that science achieves true—or approximately true—knowledge of the world as it exists independently of humans sensory experience. In this, Putnam opposed not only the positivism but other instrumentalism—whereby scientific theory as but a human tool to predict human observations—filling the void left by positivism s decline. Retrospect[edit] By the late 1960s, the neopositivist movement had clearly run its course.[41] Interviewed in the late 1970s, A J Ayer supposed that "the most important" defect "was that nearly all of it was false".[42][43] Although logical positivism tends to be recalled as a pillar of scientism,[44] Carl Hempel was key in establishing the philosophy subdiscipline philosophy of science[13] where Thomas Kuhn and Karl Popper brought in the era postpositivism.[39] John Passmore found logical positivism to be "dead, or as dead as a philosophical movement ever becomes".[42] Logical positivism s fall reopened debate over the metaphysical merit of scientific theory, whether it can offer knowledge of the world beyond human experience (scientific realism) versus whether it is but a human tool to predict human experience (instrumentalism).[45][46] Meanwhile, it became popular among philosophers to rehash the faults and failures of logical positivism without investigation of it.[47] Thereby, logical positivism has been generally misrepresented, sometimes severely.[48] Arguing for their own views, often framed versus logical positivism, many philosophers have reduced logical positivism to simplisms and stereotypes, especially the notion of logical positivism as a type of foundationalism.[48] In any event, the movement helped anchor analytic philosophy in the Anglosphere, and returned Britain to empiricism. Minus logical positivists, tremendously influential outside philosophy, especially in psychology and social sciences, intellectual life of the 20th century would be unrecognizable.[13] Footnotes[edit] ^ Jump up to a b c Michael Friedman, Reconsidering Logical Positivism (New York Cambridge University Press, 1999), p xiv. Jump up ^ See "Vienna Circle" in Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Jump up ^ Smith, L.D. (1986). Behaviorism and Logical Positivism A Reassessment of the Alliance. Stanford University Press. p. 314. ISBN 9780804713016. LCCN 85030366. The secondary and historical literature on logical positivism affords substantial grounds for concluding that logical positivism failed to solve many of the central problems it generated for itself. Prominent among the unsolved problems was the failure to find an acceptable statement of the verifiability (later confirmability) criterion of meaningfulness. Until a competing tradition emerged (about the late 1950 s), the problems of logical positivism continued to be attacked from within that tradition. But as the new tradition in the philosophy of science began to demonstrate its effectiveness—by dissolving and rephrasing old problems as well as by generating new ones—philosophers began to shift allegiances to the new tradition, even though that tradition has yet to receive a canonical formulation. Jump up ^ Bunge, M.A. (1996). Finding Philosophy in Social Science. Yale University Press. p. 317. ISBN 9780300066067. LCCN lc96004399. To conclude, logical positivism was progressive compared with the classical positivism of Ptolemy, Hume, d Alembert, Compte, John Stuart Mill, and Ernst Mach. It was even more so by comparison with its contemporary rivals—neo-Thomisism, neo-Kantianism, intuitionism, dialectical materialism, phenomenology, and existentialism. However, neo-positivism failed dismally to give a faithful account of science, whether natural or social. It failed because it remained anchored to sense-data and to a phenomenalist metaphysics, overrated the power of induction and underrated that of hypothesis, and denounced realism and materialism as metaphysical nonsense. Although it has never been practiced consistently in the advanced natural sciences and has been criticized by many philosophers, notably Popper (1959 [1935], 1963), logical positivism remains the tacit philosophy of many scientists. Regrettably, the anti-positivism fashionable in the metatheory of social science is often nothing but an excuse for sloppiness and wild speculation. Jump up ^ "Popper, Falsifiability, and the Failure of Positivism". 7 August 2000. Retrieved 30 June 2012. The upshot is that the positivists seem caught between insisting on the V.C. [Verifiability Criterion]—but for no defensible reason—or admitting that the V.C. requires a background language, etc., which opens the door to relativism, etc. In light of this dilemma, many folk—especially following Popper s "last-ditch" effort to "save" empiricism/positivism/realism with the falsifiability criterion—have agreed that positivism is a dead-end. Jump up ^ For example, compare "Proposition 4.024" of Tractatus, asserting that we understand a proposition when we know the outcome if it is true, with Schlick s asserting, "To state the circumstances under which a proposition is true is the same as stating its meaning". Jump up ^ "Positivismus und realismus", Erkenntnis 3 1–31, English trans in Sarkar, Sahotra, ed, Logical Empiricism at its Peak Schlick, Carnap, and Neurath (New York Garland Publishing, 1996), p 38. Jump up ^ For summary of the effect of Tractatus on logical positivists, see the Entwicklung der Thesen des "Wiener Kreises". ^ Jump up to a b c d e Jaako Hintikka, "Logicism", in Andrew D Irvine, ed, Philosophy of Mathematics (Burlington MA North Holland, 2009), pp 283–84. Jump up ^ See Rudolf Carnap, "The elimination Of metaphysics through logical analysis of language", Erkenntnis, 1932;2, reprinted in Logical Positivism, Alfred Jules Ayer, ed, (New York Free Press, 1959), pp 60–81. ^ Jump up to a b Frederick Suppe, "The positivist model of scientific theories", in Scientific Inquiry, Robert Klee, ed, (New York Oxford University Press, 1999), pp 16-24. ^ Jump up to a b c d e f g h i j Sarkar, S; Pfeifer, J (2005). The Philosophy of Science An Encyclopedia 1. Taylor Francis. p. 83. ISBN 9780415939270. ^ Jump up to a b c d e f g h Friedman, Reconsidering Logical Positivism (Cambridge U P, 1999), p xii. ^ Jump up to a b c d Antony G Flew, A Dictionary of Philosophy, rev 2nd edn (New York St Martin s Press, 1984), "Hume s fork", p 156. Jump up ^ Helen B Mitchell, Roots of Wisdom A Tapestry of Philosophical Traditions A Tapestry of Philosophical Traditions, 6th edn (Boston Wadsworth, 2011), "Hume s fork and logical positivism", pp 249-50. Jump up ^ For a classic survey of other versions of verificationism, see Carl G Hempel, "Problems and changes in the empiricist criterion of meaning", Revue Internationale de Philosophie, 1950;41 41-63. Jump up ^ See Moritz Schlick, "The future Of philosophy", in The Linguistic Turn, Richard Rorty, ed, (Chicago University of Chicago Press, 1992), pp 43-53. Jump up ^ Examples of these different views can be found in Scheffler s Anatomy of Inquiry, Ayer s Language, Truth, and Logic, Schlick s "Positivism and realism" (reprinted in Sarkar 1996 and Ayer 1959), and Carnap s Philosophy and Logical Syntax. ^ Jump up to a b Mauro Murzi "Rudolf Carnap (1891—1970)", Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy, 12 Apr 2001. ^ Jump up to a b Fetzer, James (2012). Edward N. Zalta, ed. "Carl Hempel". The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Summer 2012 ed.). It would fall to Hempel to become perhaps the most astute critic of that movement and to contribute to its refinement as logical empiricism... Hempel himself attained a certain degree of prominence as a critic of this movement... The analytic/synthetic distinction and the observational/theoretical distinction were tied together by the verifiability criterion of meaningfulness... By this standard, sentences that are non-analytic but also non-verifiable, including various theological or metaphysical assertions concerning God or The Absolute, qualify as cognitively meaningless. This was viewed as a desirable result. But, as Hempel would demonstrate, its scope was far too sweeping, since it also rendered meaningless the distinctively scientific assertions made by laws and theories... The analytic/synthetic distinction took a decided hit when the noted logician, Willard van Orman Quine, published "Two dogmas of empiricism" (1953), challenging its adequacy... While the analytic/synthetic distinction appears to be justifiable in modeling important properties of languages, the observational/theoretical distinction does not fare equally well. Within logical positivism, observation language was assumed to consist of names and predicates whose applicability or not can be ascertained, under suitable conditions, by means of direct observation... Karl Popper (1965, 1968), however, would carry the argument in a different direction by looking at the ontic nature of properties... Hempel (1950, 1951), meanwhile, demonstrated that the verifiability criterion could not be sustained. Since it restricts empirical knowledge to observation sentences and their deductive consequences, scientific theories are reduced to logical constructions from observables. In a series of studies about cognitive significance and empirical testability, he demonstrated that the verifiability criterion implies that existential generalizations are meaningful, but that universal generalizations are not, even though they include general laws, the principal objects of scientific discovery. Hypotheses about relative frequencies in finite sequences are meaningful, but hypotheses concerning limits in infinite sequences are not. The verifiability criterion thus imposed a standard that was too strong to accommodate the characteristic claims of science and was not justifiable... Both theoretical and dispositional predicates, which refer to non-observables, posed serious problems for the positivist position, since the verifiability criterion implies they must be reducible to observables or are empirically meaningless... The need to dismantle the verifiability criterion of meaningfulness together with the demise of the observational/theoretical distinction meant that logical positivism no longer represented a rationally defensible position. At least two of its defining tenets had been shown to be without merit. Since most philosophers believed that Quine had shown the analytic/synthetic distinction was also untenable, moreover, many concluded that the enterprise had been a total failure. Among the important benefits of Hempel s critique, however, was the production of more general and flexible criteria of cognitive significance... Hempel suggested multiple criteria for assessing the cognitive significance of different theoretical systems, where significance is not categorical but rather a matter of degree... The elegance of Hempel s study laid to rest any lingering aspirations for simple criteria of cognitive significance and signaled the demise of logical positivism as a philosophical movement. Precisely what remained, however, was in doubt. Presumably, anyone who rejected one or more of the three principles defining positivism—the analytic/synthetic distinction, the observational/theoretical distinction, and the verifiability criterion of significance—was not a logical positivist. The precise outlines of its philosophical successor, which would be known as "logical empiricism", were not entirely evident. Perhaps this study came the closest to defining its intellectual core. Those who accepted Hempel s four criteria and viewed cognitive significance as a matter of degree were members, at least in spirit. But some new problems were beginning to surface with respect to Hempel s covering-law explication of explanation and old problems remained from his studies of induction, the most remarkable of which was known as "the paradox of confirmation". ^ Jump up to a b Ayer, Language, Truth and Logic, 1946, p 50–51. ^ Jump up to a b Novick, That Noble Dream (Cambridge U P, 1988), p 546. ^ Jump up to a b James Woodward, "Scientific explanation"—sec 1 "Background and introduction", in Zalta EN, ed,The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, Winter 2011 edn ^ Jump up to a b James Woodward, "Scientific explanation"—Article overview, Zalta EN, ed, The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, Winter 2011 edn ^ Jump up to a b c d e f Suppe, Structure of Scientific Theories (U Illinois P, 1977), pp 619–21. Jump up ^ Eleonora Montuschi, Objects in Social Science (London New York Continuum, 2003), pp 61–62. Jump up ^ Bechtel, Philosophy of Science (Lawrence Erlbaum, 1988), p 25. Jump up ^ Bechtel, Philosophy of Science (Lawrence Erlbaum, 1988), pp 27–28. Jump up ^ Georg Hendrik von Wright, Explanation and Understanding (Ithaca NY Cornell University Press, 1971), p 11. Jump up ^ Stuart Glennan, p 276, in Sarkar S Pfeifer J, eds, The Philosophy of Science An Encyclopedia, Volume 1 A–M (New York Routledge, 2006). Jump up ^ Manfred Riedel, pp 3–4, in Manninen J Tuomela R, eds, Essays on Explanation and Understanding Studies in the Foundation of Humanities and Social Sciences (Dordrecht D Reidel Publishing, 1976). Jump up ^ For a review of "unity of science" to, see Gregory Frost-Arnold, "The large-scale structure of logical empiricism Unity of science and the rejection of metaphysics". Jump up ^ John Vicker (2011). Edward N Zalta, ed. "The problem of induction". The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Fall 2011 ed.). This initial formulation of the criterion was soon seen to be too strong; it counted as meaningless not only metaphysical statements but also statements that are clearly empirically meaningful, such as that all copper conducts electricity and, indeed, any universally quantified statement of infinite scope, as well as statements that were at the time beyond the reach of experience for technical, and not conceptual, reasons, such as that there are mountains on the back side of the moon. These difficulties led to modification of the criterion The latter to allow empirical verification if not in fact then at least in principle, the former to soften verification to empirical confirmation. Jump up ^ Uebel, Thomas (2008). Edward N. Zalta, ed. "Vienna Circle". The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Fall 2008 ed.). What Carnap later called the "liberalization of empiricism" was underway and different camps became discernible within the Circle... In the first place, this liberalization meant the accommodation of universally quantified statements and the return, as it were, to salient aspects of Carnap s 1928 conception. Everybody had noted that the Wittgensteinian verificationist criterion rendered universally quantified statements meaningless. Schlick (1931) thus followed Wittgenstein s own suggestion to treat them instead as representing rules for the formation of verifiable singular statements. (His abandonment of conclusive verifiability is indicated only in Schlick 1936a.) A second element that began to do so soon was the recognition of the problem of the irreducibility of disposition terms to observation terms... A third element was that disagreement arose as to whether the in-principle verifiability or support turned on what was merely logically possible or on what was nomologically possible, as a matter of physical law etc. A fourth element, finally, was that differences emerged as to whether the criterion of significance was to apply to all languages or whether it was to apply primarily to constructed, formal languages. Schlick retained the focus on logical possibility and natural languages throughout, but Carnap had firmly settled his focus on nomological possibility and constructed languages by the mid-thirties. Concerned with natural language, Schlick (1932, 1936a) deemed all statements meaningful for which it was logically possible to conceive of a procedure of verification; concerned with constructed languages only, Carnap (1936-37) deemed meaningful only statements for whom it was nomologically possible to conceive of a procedure of confirmation of disconfirmation. Many of these issues were openly discussed at the Paris congress in 1935. Already in 1932 Carnap had sought to sharpen his previous criterion by stipulating that those statements were meaningful that were syntactically well-formed and whose non-logical terms were reducible to terms occurring in the basic observational evidence statements of science. While Carnap s focus on the reduction of descriptive terms allows for the conclusive verification of some statements, his criterion also allowed universally quantified statements to be meaningful, provided they were syntactically and terminologically correct (1932a, §2). It was not until one of his Paris addresses, however, that Carnap officially declared the meaning criterion to be mere confirmability. Carnap s new criterion required neither verification nor falsification but only partial testability so as now to include not only universal statements but also the disposition statements of science... Though plausible initially, the device of introducing non-observational terms in this way gave rise to a number of difficulties which impugned the supposedly clear distinctions between logical and empirical matters and analytic and synthetic statements (Hempel 1951). Independently, Carnap himself (1939) soon gave up the hope that all theoretical terms of science could be related to an observational base by such reduction chains. This admission raised a serious problem for the formulation of a meaning criterion how was one to rule out unwanted metaphysical claims while admitting as significant highly abstract scientific claims? ^ Jump up to a b Hilary Putnam (1985). Philosophical Papers Volume 3, Realism and Reason. Philosophical Papers. Cambridge University Press. p. 184. ISBN 9780521313940. LCCN lc82012903. Jump up ^ W V O Quine, "Two dogmas of empiricism", Philosophical Review 1951;60 20-43, collected in Quine, From a Logical Point of View (Cambridge MA Harvard University Press, 1953). Jump up ^ Novick, That Noble Dream (Cambridge U P, 1988), p 527. Jump up ^ Popper then denies that science requires inductive inference or that it actually exists, although most philosophers believe it exists and that science requires it [Samir Okasha, The Philosophy of Science A Very Short Introduction (NY OUP, 2002), p 23]. ^ Jump up to a b c d e Novick, That Noble Dream (Cambridge U P, 1988), pp 526-27. Jump up ^ Hilary Putnam, "Problems with the observational/theoretical distinction", in Scientific Inquiry, Robert Klee, ed (New York, USA Oxford University Press, 1999), pp 25-29. Jump up ^ Nicholas G Fotion (1995). Ted Honderich, ed. The Oxford Companion to Philosophy. Oxford Oxford University Press. p. 508. ISBN 0-19-866132-0. ^ Jump up to a b Hanfling, Oswald (2003). "Logical Positivism". Routledge History of Philosophy. Routledge. pp. 193f. Jump up ^ "Ayer on Logical Positivism Section 4". 6 30. Jump up ^ Stahl et al, Webs of Reality (Rutgers U P, 2002), p 180. Jump up ^ Hilary Putnam, "What is realism?", in Jarrett Leplin, ed, Scientific Realism (Berkeley, Los Angeles, London University of California Press, 1984), p 140. Jump up ^ Ruth Lane, "Positivism, scientific realism and political science Recent developments in the philosophy of science", Journal of Theoretical Politics, 1996 Jul8(3) 361-82, abstract. Jump up ^ Friedman, Reconsidering Logical Positivism (Cambridge, 1999), p 1. ^ Jump up to a b Friedman, Reconsidering Logical Positivism (Cambridge, 1999), p 2.